Ethnic Groups and Discrimination Essay Example for Free

Ethnic Groups and Discrimination EssayI belong to the White hea and soish class which was responsible for the colonization of North America. While I am part of the White cultural group, my family immigrated to the joined States from Germany quite some time after the major colonization of North America. When virtually hoi polloi call up about the colonization of North America they think of White people on the Mayflower landing place on Plymouth Rock. While the pilgrims did annex what is now referred to as New England, the Spanish were actually the first to colonize North America. No matter who first colonized North America, this colonization caused an influx of immigrants that asserted their ascendency over the native people. This colonization was also the root cause of slavery being introduced to this New World. Pilgrims are most notably identified as coming to North America to escape religious persecution. The teetotal part of the colonization is that the pilgrims bos omd their religion on those native to North America. It is important to note that this whitethorn be one of the first indications of future ethnic and racial problems that would caused by the colonization of North America.I dont think people normally think about racism happening to Caucasians. Unfortunately it is very everyday for racism to happen to all ethnic groups in the U. S. Caucasian racism and diagonal against other(a) ethnic and racial groups always suck upm to cleave the most publicity. It would be better to broaden our view of prejudice and racism so that we could get the whole story. I think that the Caucasian group had brought most of this detrimental attention on itself. Historically the U. S. has been dominated by Caucasians, which means this group doesnt have as much to worry about restrictions due to ethnicity or racial group.If we break down the Caucasian group nevertheless further we stand see that this is even truer for the males, which I am, of this gro up. Male Caucasians have long been the dominant force in U. S. society. The majority of restrictions placed on feminines and ethnic groups have been enforced by Male Caucasians. The most notable Caucasian disparity has been against African Americans. African Americans were largely used for slave force back during the counterbalance of the U. S. Going from slave to equal isnt easy, in both occurrence and acceptance from the former dominant or controlling group.This dominant position can be seen as a major reason wherefore the view of discrimination is still focused on Caucasians. Since the Caucasian males of the past have put restrictions on most other ethnic groups, this wrong was attempted to be undone by Affirmative save laws (Fullinwider, Robert). While most people see Affirmative Action as being helpful, it has also caused discrimination against Caucasian males. Some government agencies require a quota on hiring certain ethnic groups (this admitd female Caucasians).This c an cause a job candidate that has hirer qualifications to be passed over bonnie to touch a quota. I have seen this happen to my father while he was applying for a firefighter/EMT position. You can easily see the Caucasian male dominance by noticing the dual labor market effect. I see it more as a multiple labor market since I would also include female Caucasians as another labor market. Immigrants from Mexico often enter into a portion of this multiple labor market, most notably the farming community.Whether it is farming, manual labor, or the lower-end service sector it seems that it seems more acceptable to Caucasians for other ethnic groups to occupy these types of jobs. When the other ethnic groups occupy positions normally held by Caucasian males, we often see a limitation in their ability to progress in that profession (glass ceiling). If you look at the breakdown of people who run companies you will see this is dominated by Caucasians males, followed by males of the other e thnic groups, then females of all ethnic groups.Discrimination isnt only apparent in the job market, but in how companies redact in certain areas. It is seen in our repartee to what is happening in other areas of cities or areas of the country. We have slums and ghettos that dont get investment monies to fix them up due to the lower class segregation. We have other areas occupied by a high number of non-Caucasians that dont get investments just because of their ethnicity. New Orleans is a perfect eccentric of all of these inequalities. It was a city segregated by race, ethnicity, and social class standing.The devastation caused by hurricane Katrina happened to people who couldnt afford to get out on their own, and was compounded by the predominantly Caucasian governments lack of response (arguably due to the racial differences between U. S. leaders and with the people effected by the disaster). I dont feel that I fit in with the standard culture for my Caucasian ethnic group or t he U. S. mainstream culture. I dont come in in any religions, as I believe in myself and science that can be proved. I dont feel that I am or need to be better than any other ethnic group.I couldnt care less about what style is popular or what haircuts are in. I just try to be myself and try to ignore things that try to sway my opinions. Instead of taking someones word for something I would rather research and come to my own decision (almost to a fault). I think it is better to be different than a lemming following the crowd running off the cliff. References Fullinwider, Robert (2005). Affirmative Action. Retrieved February 1, 2006 from http//plato. stanford. edu/entries/affirmative-action/.

Macro and Micro Environmental Factors Essay Example for Free

Macro and Micro Environmental Factors establishThere are galore(postnominal) other point of intersections to choose in the soft intoxication market hold Pepsi Co product , the different is those products are cheaper than Gatorade * In stray to attract more customers, Gatorade has improved its product whole step and washed-out lots of money on announce. -Selling products Gatorade closelyly is the imported product so most distributor afraid that they cant sell Gatorade because of Gatorade price * Gatorade has increased the suppliers commission. -PublicsThe customers in the last 1 year with the developing of VN economic has begun to care about their health lately. Many version center, fitness club, etc has been opened in the last 15 years. * The big, potential market for energy beverage drink such as Gatorade to grow. As the outlet, Pepsi has built up many small, convenient store around those places. * advertizement and promoting trough sport events. Gatorade is als o focus on McKinseys structure include structure, strategy, and skill, provide, and style, system and portion out value. + Style Gatorade is one of the company which have style.It helps Pepsi too adopted to changes so it can reach and doctor it quickly. + Strategy Improve the sport drink market in VN * Improve both product quality and price * Has an production line in VN with cheap resources and good materials but still guarantee the quality. So as to compete, Pepsi has advertised its product a lot and had various surveys to research what their consumers needs and originate healthy products are. Macro environment -Political VN has been the 150th member of WTO so it has attracted many big investors all everyplace the world.The government has supported many enterprises and business investments by changing to the international law, this has led to more active business action which the consumers can approach to the local products and costumers can have more choice at heart all t he global products too. * Pepsi Co considered about importing more Gatorade in each trip to sink to price and earn more revenue or adding no more product. -Technology Consumers now mostly gift all the products by credit, master or visa card which allows company to narrow the distance amidst producer and buyer. gt It invests not only in one country but open up many branches all over the world and there must be finish whether to use capital for hiring staff, advertising the product, etc. or not Economics environment The average income of a Vietnamese is affected by lump and economic ciao. So, the number of selling product s are also decrease. Pepsi has made a decision to having more and more promotion, and held lots of social event to refresh the consumers comments about the company to batch up a good new one. Environment The environment issue in VN is becoming more and more serious. This problem is cant be avoid in developing country. Its the result of industrialize and moderni zation. To reduce pollution government has set up a law in order to protect the environment. Even though, Vietnameses awareness isnt as high as other country but the law has been enforced a great punishment to those who pollute the environment. * This make Pepsi spent lots of money in buy new green-facilities , and providing the idea of protecting the nvironment to not only their staff but also their customers. Both help to protect the environment and still promote Pepsi good fame. bargain Power of Supplier the soft drink market in VN and foreign isnt the exclusive market. negotiate Power of Consumers * Industries facing powerful buyers Distributors have the power to negotiate with the company on price, product quality, as well as marketing policy. * Industries facing weak buyers have little impact on the market, each(prenominal) buyers will buy the products with different purposes.Some bought to sell, others for political purpose . Numbers of require products is too much for th e producer to still keeping it product quality. So that, the pressure is heavy too Threat of gate Gatorade has many competitors. contest from substitutes Gatorade should be change product when customer want and need, also price and quality. Competition between firms Gatorade have many competitor in Vietnam. Gatorade should always pay attention to your competitors.

Auditing Risk Essay Example for Free

Auditing risk of exposure EssayThe scrutinizeor chooses what over all told level of canvas risk they are willing to accept. A high level of scrutinize risk means that the auditor is willing to accept more(prenominal) audit failures. 1% audit risk means that you are willing to accept that 1 out of 100 issued audit opinions will be incorrect. 5% audit risk means that you are willing to accept that 5 out of 100 issued audit opinions will be incorrect. So, the higher the audit risk you are willing to accept, the less audit work you have to perform. Audit risk and audit work are inversely related.Inherent Risk (IR) is the susceptibility of a particular transaction to be recorded in error. For example, revenue enhancement recognition related to software transactions is more inherently risky that revenue recognized at a point of sale transaction at a grocery store. In this example (all else constant), you would dish out your software company client revenue accounts higher inh erent risk than your grocery store client, out-of-pocket to the inherent difficulty in software revenue recognition. higher(prenominal) inherent risk, all else constant, leads to more audit work.Inherent risk and audit work are flat related. Stated more specifically, if the inherent endangerment of one set of accounts is higher than another set of accounts, the auditor must increase the amount of interrogatory done to achieve the given level of audit risk. Control risk (CR) is the risk that the companys internal control system will fail to prevent or detect errors. A well(p) established fortune 500 manufacturing company is likely to have better internal controls than a low-pitched biotech startup with one person playing the roles of accountant, chief financial officer and CEO.In this example (again, all else constant) you would assign your manufacturing client a lower control risk than your biotech client (for whom, in all likelihood, you specify not to rely on controls at al l, and assign a value of 1 to control risk). Higher control risk, all else constant, leads to more audit work. Control risk and audit work are directly related, stated more specifically, if the risk that controls will not catch accounting errors increases, you must do more testing to achieve a given level of audit risk.Second Lets conjecture about the equation, and the relation of each type of risk to each other s the risk that our audit procedures over a specific account or group of accounts will fail to detect a material misstatement. We know that we set the level of M. Shepardson audit risk, we assess the levels of inherent risk and control risk, and from that, we answer for the level of detection risk. Rewriting equation (1), we have the following

Juvenile Correctional Officers Essay Example for Free

Juvenile Correctional Officers EssayWhen a person is charged for a shame that was move and is sentenced to serve time in a rapidness, a correctional officer is responsible for the supervision and preventive of the detainee. Correctional officers work in adult and upstart detention centers, though in each facility their responsibilities differ pertaining to whether the detainee is an adult or a juvenile. Because of the ages of the detainees a correctional officer at a juvenile detention facility argon greater than if they were dealing with adults. To understand what the differences be in regards to a juvenile, one must know, child development, punishment, and deterrence play a part in the alone(predicate) situations pertaining to a juvenile detainee. Every child that commits a nuisance has their very own unique situation behind the crime. Some children were taught the crimes they commit by a trusted adult, or television. Some may have an underlying mental or psychologica l defect that brought them to commit the crime.There are in addition situations where a child was neglected, abandoned, or abused by an adult they cared about, thusly bringing violence among the child. A childs development can play a very important role in corrections. There may be a violent child that may need to be inhibit or put in separate quarters to protect themselves as well as new(prenominal) detainees from harm. A child may also need to be medicated because of an underlying condition or disease. on the whole of these factors can non only affect how a child is taken care of in a facility, but also before that when they are arrested and move. All of the above factors can either help or hurt a child. If there is no proof of abuse or an mental condition, the courts may be less lenient on their charge and sentence, then a troubled child with underlying factors, in which a judge may take those factors into consideration and gives a lesser charge, House them in a mental fa cility instead, or provide extra programs or services to help the child erst detained.Through punishment a court can show the juvenile what happens if they commit a crime and keep them off the street and from the community by taking away their freedom. Most juveniles are penalise by a fine, community service, probation, home electronic monitoring, or incarceration in a juvenile detention center. While there they will be under close supervision of correctional officers and therapists in some facilities. There are occasions for serious crimes that a judge will sentence a juvenile to an adult detention center if they have been tried as an adult. The juveniles that are occasionally tried as adults are ones that commit crimes such as manslaughter, sex crimes, or murder. While a juvenile is in a detention center, they can have visitors as long as it is an immediate family constituent and this is usually on certain days. In some facilities, recreation, religious, and educational program s are given while they are detained as well.Increased punishment of juveniles reduces the amount of crime they commit in a way mistakable to the impact punishment has for adults, according to a new paper by Steven Levitt, Associate Professor of economics at the University of Chicago. The evidence suggests that juvenile crime is responsive to harsher sanctions, Levitt writes. The estimated decrease in crime associated with incarcerating an spare juvenile is at least as large as the corresponding reduction in crime for adult offenders, (Levitt, S, 1998). In an effort to strengthen the sanctions for serious juvenile crimes, a number of states have enacted laws change magnitude the types of offenders and offenses eligible for transfer from the juvenile court to the adult criminal court for trial and potential sentencing, (Redding, R, 2010).These laws are created to try and set precedent to deter juveniles from following certain crime trends and teach them what is in terminal for th em if they do offend. Deterrence has became a popular practice in the criminal justice system. With success of a deterrence, jails and detention centers do not get overcrowded, and more money of the individual states can go to descent therapeutic programs and services to assist troubled individuals. In some instances, a juvenile can be given an opportunity to make heir offense right by attending therapy and psychological meetings, thus helping them cope with whatever issues they may have.This can aid in deterring the individual from committing a crime. Juveniles are our future and it is the responsibility of us adults to help them grow up into fine law abiding individuals and not into a life of crime. To help adults teach juveniles they , must know the juvenile corrections department and set up their children. Knowing how a child develops, how punishment can help, and ways to deter the juvenile are well-grounded practices for any parent and adult to learn. For us to safely say we raised our kids right, we must keep the cosmea free of crime and full of love.ResourcesRedding, Richard, Juvenile Justice Bulletin, US Dept of Justice, Juvenile Transfer Laws, 2010, Right adjustment Steven Levitt, Associate Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago, Juvenile Delinquents, University of Chicago News Office, December 21, 1998, Para. 1.

The Handsomest Drowned Man Essay Example for Free

The Handsomest Drowned Man EssayThe story begins with several children playing on the beach. That pretty much suffices for They retard an abnormal feeling bulge in the ocean. They try and guess anything that it might be until it washes up shore and they realize its a drowned man. The children, being children, start to play with the corpse until an adult spots the stark naked toy and lets the rest of the village bop. The men of the town carry the body to the nearest house and blether about how heavy he is. Since the body was in the ocean for so long, they figured it was the water that went to his bones.In their small fishing community, there is such little space or so that utter bodies are non buried, but thrown over the cliffs and into the ocean. Since the village is so small, the men look around to see that no(prenominal) of them are missing, and automatically know that the dead man is a stranger. That night, the men of the village go around to otherwise towns to se ek a better idea of where he mightve come from. The women stay foundation to clean the oceans waste off the body.As they clean him off, the women notice that he comes from somewhere far away because the junk that they clean off isnt a lay out of anything around their part of the world. When the drowned man is finally cleaned off, the women are left in awe because he is the biggest and tallest and most proud looking man they admit ever seen. Hes so big that the women thunder mugt find a neck big enough for him. They cant find any clothes to fit him, so the women, warmen clothes for him from a sail. While they work on his clothing, the women feel like everything has changed because of their discovery.They start to compare the dead man to their husbands in such a way that made their husbands seem like the worst filling theyve ever made. The oldest woman in the group of women looks down at the drowned man and says he has the portray of someone named Esteban. All of the other w omen agree right away. Later on after midnight, while the women watch the body being dragged along the ground, they start feeling pity for the drowned man because of his massive size which must have been a burden for him.They thought about his life and how he would have probably had trouble going through doorways, hitting his head on crossbeams, and not being able to find a curb sturdy enough to seat him. When the men come back and announce that none of the nearby villages can claim the dead body, the women stay put hyped up about the idea that he is now theirs. The men telephone their women are being ridiculous and just want to get this burial done as fast as possible. They make a type of stretcher to carry him to the cliffs. While the men rush to get the task done, the women try to waste time by covering the dead body up with other little items.The men complain the entire time until the handkerchief uncovers the dead mans face and they all stand there in awe about how handsom e he is and know that he is Esteban. They thought the same thing about the man and how he must have had such a hard time moving his massive body around and how burden he was causing the villagers. So the villagers make a formal funeral. They go to villages around them to get flowers, and they choose for him honorary family members from their village, The women mourn so loud it steers the sailors off course.As they carry his body to the cliff, the women are aware for the first time that everything they know doesnt compare to the beauty of their drowned man. When they finally let the body go off the cliff, they dont anchor it, so that he can come back if he wishes. The villagers realize that everything will be different from now on. They will make the best of their village and make it progress by mental synthesis houses bigger and better, paint them bright colors, and plant flowers on their cliffs so that future sailors going by will see and smell them, and they will know that its Es tebans Village.

Accounting-Financial Statements Essay Example for Free

be- monetary pedagogys Essay participates the quaternion pecuniary statementsIncome financial statement, Statement of bear Earnings, oddment Sheet, and Statement of Cash Flows. method of chronicle as the language of personal credit line is discussed along with an introduction of the various users of be information. Financial and managerial story are compared. The four slipway to organize a line of descent proprietorship, partnership, limited liability company, and corporation, are discussed. An introduction and contrast of the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) and the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) is done.The Entity self-confidence, Continuity (Going Concern) Assumption, Historical Cost Principle, and Stable Monetary building block Assumption are explained. The accounting equation Assets = Liabilities + Stockholders Equity is presented along with definitions and explanations of each luck of the equation. A detail presentation of each of the four previously mentioned financial statements is given. Each account compartmentalization of the financial statements assets, liabilities, stockholders equity, gross, and expenses are thoroughly explained and examples of common account titles used are given.The emergence of evaluating a company through the use of the financial statements is shown. A discussion of business ethics in accounting decisions is done. An end of chapter summary problem emphasizes the preparation as well as taste of the financial statements. An accounting vocabulary section explains either the new accounting terms. The End of Chapter Access Your Progress allows the savant to determine how well he grasped the information presented in the chapter. Traditional exercises and problems solidify the students perceptiveness of the material. Teaching Outline . pose a. Financial Accounting b. Managerial Accounting c. Contrast Financial and Managerial Accounting 2. Describe the users of financial information a. Individuals b. Business Managers c. Investors d. Creditors e. Government Regulatory Agencies f. Taxing Authorities g. not-for-profit Organizations h. Other Organizations 3. Explain a. Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) i. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) b. International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) i. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) c. Compare GAAP and IFRS 4.Define and discuss Accounting Principles, Assumptions and Concepts a. Entity Assumption b. Continuity (Going Concern) Assumption c. Historical Cost Principle d. Stable Monetary Unit Assumption 5. Introduce the Accounting Equation a. Define and discuss common account titles i. Assets ii. Liabilities iii. Stockholders Equity b. Define and discuss common account titles i. Revenue ii. Expense iii. bear Earnings c. Discuss Paid in Capital and Dividends 6. Explain and Prepare the Financial Statements a. Income Statement b. Statements of Retained Earnings c. relief Shee t d.Statement of Cash Flows 7. Use Financial Statements to evaluate business exertion a. Explain the relationship among the financial statements 8. morals in Business and Accounting Decisions a. The role of judgment in making decisions b. Economic factors c. Legal factors d. estimable factors Key Topics The financial statements are actually reports on how well or poorly a business performed during a stipulate period of time. Chapter one actually presents the four basic financial statements and separate germane(predicate) information that is needed to adequately prepare the financial statements.First one moldiness understand that the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) develops the rules and guidelines in the United States that must be adhered to in preparing the financial statements. These guidelines are know as the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) develops the international financial reportage standard s (IFRS) which are the international or global standards. Exhibit 1-3 gives an overview of the joint conceptual framework of accounting essential by the FASB and the IASB.However, the SEC announced that it pass on soon require all American companies to adopt the IFRS. This adoption is currently slated to begin the initial phase in 2014 with all companies on board by 2016. The adoption of the IFRS by all American companies will facilitate the process of comparing financial statements of like industries globally. Also, it will eliminate the need of many companies to prepare several sets of financial statements. Accounting is often labeled as the language of business and there are external as well as internal users of accounting information.Individuals, investors and creditors, regulatory bodies as well as nonprofit organizations are just some of the noted users of the accounting information. The accounting information is expected to be accurate as well as timely in rule to satis fy the need of the users. in that respect are two different types of accounting that is needed by the users. They are Financial Accounting and Managerial Accounting. Financial Accounting primarily provides information to the external users and managerial primarily serves the internal users. This information is used in each and every type of business organization.There is the sole proprietorship, partnership, limited liability company, and the corporation. Each of these businesses differs as far as the form of ownership and other accounting details however, each is dependent on accurate and timely information in set up to make at the optimum level. There are some key accounting principles, assumptions, and concepts used in adequately preparing the accounting records. The first one discussed in this chapter is the assumption entity. This is the underlying assumption, which can be interpreted by the users of the financial statements, that a business is a separate economic entity.Eac h business is set as a separate and distinct entity to enable the accountant to adequately measure the financial performance of the business. The Continuity (Going Concern) Assumption is likewise discussed here. This is the assumption that the business will continue to exist long liberal to use the existing assets for their intended purpose. If the business does intend to continue to operate and employ the assets as intended, it does not have to be disclosed in the financial statements. However, if there is an intention not to continue to operate it must be disclosed somewhere in the financial statements.The Historical Cost Principle is presented such that one will understand that actual cost is used as the valuing system for all accounting transactions. Actual cost is verifiable as well as unbiased and therefore used to handle that the accounting records are alert in a relevant as well as safe manner. The Stable Monetary Unit Assumption is also presented in this chapter. Thi s is the assumption that the purchase power of a dollar does not fluctuate. That is, one can purchase the same amount with a dollar immediately that he/she could a year ago.This assumption allows the accountant to ignore inflation and add or work out dollars from varying years without adjusting for inflation. This is sometimes difficult for students to understand because they have seen inflation as well as lagging economies however, the professor can assure the student that if needed there is a system developed to reliably compare statements from varying years. That system, however, is taught in upper level accounting courses. After developing an understanding of this material the student is then introduced to the Accounting Equation.That is Assets = Liabilities + Owners Equity. It is imperative that the student understand the importance that this equation plays in preparing the financial statements. This equation presents the resources of a company as well as the claims on those resources. One must also note that this equation must be kept in symmetricalness at all times. Assets are presented as economic resources of the entity that are expected to be of future benefit. These resources have two types of claims against them liabilities international claims and owners equity insider claims.See exhibit 1-4 to help present the fact that the two sides must equal. The influence on stockholders equity by, paid-in capital, and retained moolah must be explained. Also, the manner in which revenue, expenses and dividends effect retained earnings should be explained. Remember to stress that dividends do not affect net income. They are not subtracted from revenue to determine the net income. Rather, they are subtracted from retained earnings. The financial statements are now to be presented.The Income Statement is the also referred to as the statement of operations because it measures the operating(a) performance. It reports the revenues earned as well as the expen ses incurred during a specified period of time. The expenses are subtracted from the revenue to determine the net income/loss for the accounting period. Net income is said to be the single most grave item in the financial statements. The Statement of Retained Earnings is prepared after the Income Statement because the net income/loss from the Income Statement is needed to prepare the Statement of Retained Earnings.Retained earnings are simply the portion of the net income that the company has kept in the business. The Statement of Retained Earnings shows the changes that occurred in the retained earnings during the accounting period. Be sure to note that the net income is added to the ancestry retained earning balance and the dividends are subtracted in order to determine the ending retained earnings balance. The Balance Sheet is prepared after the Statement of Retained Earnings because the ending retained earnings balance is needed to prepare the Balance Sheet.Statement of Financ ial Position is another name given to the Balance Sheet because it actually measures the financial position of a company. This statement reports on the assets, liabilities, and stockholders equity of a company. A good way to help the students understand the information given by the Balance Sheet is to pick out them that it gives a quick snapshot view of the financial status of the company on one daytime. That day is generally the end of the accounting period. The sum of the assets is expected to equal the sum of the liabilities and the stockholders equity. See exhibit 1-9.The Statement of Cash Flow measures the cash receipts and payments. This statement reports on cash flows from three major activities operating activities, investing activities, and financing activities. The net increase/decrease in cash from these three activities is then set and added to the beginning cash balance to get the ending cash balance. In the financial statement conclusions it is important make sure th e students know the purpose of each financial statement. It is also important that the students know the order of preparation as well as the formulas for each financial statement.Good business requires decision making, which in turn requires the exercise of good judgment. Making good judgments in business in general and accounting in particular should take into account not only economic, but legal and ethical dimensions as well. The last section of the chapter presents an ethical decision making model that is used consistently throughout the placidity of the book. Use of the model emphasizes that good decisions are not always based just on the innovation of how much money a company can make immediately.

Types of Parasites

Types of spongesChapter 1General intromission1.0 Introduction1.1 Fish spongersParasitism is an obligatory association between deuce hard-hitting species, in which one species quick acquire is dependent on its military for nutrients and shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The hirudineans can be split up into twain groups which be ecto parazoans and endopara localises. Ecto quick studys ar tack together on the external scratchs of the forces much(prenominal) as disrobe, fins and lamellas, mend endo spongers comm exclusively hide deep down the internal tissues or organs in the troops (Cheng, 1986).Fishes acts as legions to a long variety of parasites such as the protozoans, platyhelminthes, acanthocephalan, nematodes and crustaceans (Lim, 1987). leechs be typically smaller than their host. A distinct host ordinarily plant to be give by a group of parasites (Zander, 1998).The chemical and physical factors which be every in micro-environment or macro-environment pla y an important subprogram to determine the dissemination and density of parasites (Cheng, 1986). Parasites show a preference among several(prenominal)(predicate) age groups (Zander et al., 1993), sex of host (Lim, 1987) or correspond to host density and conduct (Cheng, 1986).Remarkably, parasites pass a distinguished ability to deal with the normal physiological and structural changes of the host, for example, the peristaltic try and intestinal mucosa (Cheng, 1986) for survival, and offset their parasitism phase. asunder from that, the presence of parasites commonly irritates the host, ca utilize immunological change (Lim, 1979) and may eventually cause end (Zander, 1998). Parasites penetrate the hosts tissue, causing chronic frame trunk problems to the host. More everywhere, the irritation site testament initiate vicarious transmittal by micro-organisms to the host (Cheng, 1986).1.2 Specific parasiteGobies play a role as primary(prenominal) host and transmitters (Z ander, 1993) of parasites. Varieties of protozoan, helminthes, mollusks, crustaceans entertain been depict as parasites of search (Lim, 1987). They ar able to cat either sexually or asexually. somewhat species of parasites accept specific poundment to enable them to hold onto the host for food, transport (Cheng, 1986) or shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961).The phylum Platyhelminthes consists of a large group of free-living invertebrates but well-nigh live as epenthetic species on or in other organisms. in that respect ar 3 main classes beneath this phylum, namely, class Monogenea, class Trematode, and class Cestoda (Solomon et al., 2002).Monogeneans ar typical gillworms (Bunkley-Williams E. H. Williams, 1994). Some species attach themselves on the corpse surface or invade into the cozy organ of aquatic species (Reed, Francis-Floyd Klinger, 1996). Monogeneans realise a series of meat hooks that enable them to attach on the host (Reed et al., 1996). They usually inhabit the gill and guide on disrobe mucosa (Lim, 1987).Reed et al. (1996) mentioned that a monogenean, Dactylogyrus sp., usually attaches itself to the gills of fresh peeing fish. It reproduces by laying eggs, temporary hookup Gyrodactylus is typically strand on the skin and fins of fish. This parasite produces live young or can be describe as viviparous during its whole life.Digenea was miscellaneaerly described as digenetic trematodes and this species of flukes usually has at least(prenominal) two hosts in their life cycle (Smyth, 1962). The parasite usually has a terminal opening m tonicity uph with a lolly which is subterminal or ventral. It may or may not have an un pen drifter (Yama wild sweet peati, 1958). They are particularly arrange as endoparasites in the digestive tract, but are mosttimes launch passim the inner organ systems of vertebrates (Yama intestineti, 1958). The large(p) digeneans are commonly hermaphroditic but rejoinder s process requires two worms. Digeneans have a complex life cycle with two to three intercede hosts (Cheng, 1986).Cestode is a parasitic flatworm or commonly cognize as tapeworm (Solomon, et al., 2002). An adult worm consists of a scolex which maybe armed with suckers and sometimes hooks for attachment on host (Solomon et al., 2002) and a strobila which is a additive series that be formed by one or more segments ( in addition described as proglottides) which confine fruitful structures (Yama bowelti, 1959). Most of the tapeworms are monoecious and each proglottid has a virile reproductive system and a womanish reproductive system. Both self and cross-fertilization will take target in cestode (Smyth, 1962). nematode worm is commonly called as round worm (Solomon et al., 2002) that can infect a vertebrates eye, babble, nutritious system, consistency cavity and the other split (Smyth, 1962). This species can in any case be instal as a parasite of many species of fishes. Some species parasitize plants and are described as an important agricultural gent (Campbell, 2002). It is smooth and consists of a cylindrical body, a pointed tail and have a go at iticle layer surrounding its body (Solomon et al., 2002). Nematodes are typically dioecious. The womanish is generally larger than the male (Cheng, 1986). Apart from that, nematode life cycles disaccord depending on the species of the nematode (Smyth, 1962).1.3 The Family of family GobiidaeThe members which form the family Gobiidae are known as gobies. It is the largest family of marine fishes and consists of two light speed genera (retrieved from Wikipedia). The members of the Family Gobiidae have their own special characteristics. They have a cylindrical body and the pelvic fins usually form an self-sealing disc (Maur ice Anthony, 1993).This species usually inhabits the shore in shal measly bays and estuaries and likewise fresh pee swamps and lakes (retrieved from Wikipedia). Some species are restrict to coral reefs, rocky coast, sandy, mangrove swamp or muddy beaches (Murdy, 1989).1.4 Oxudercine Gobies (Mudskippers)The mudspringers are known as ikan belacak, ikan tembakul or ikan belukor in Malay. The members of the goby family classified as mudspringer species brutald on body traits and behaviours (Murdy, 1989).Oxudercine gobies are described as the members of mudskippers (Murdy, 1989). at that place are thirty four species from ten genera put through protrude the being (Murdy, 1989). They are Apocryptes, Zappa, Pseudapocryptes, Apocryptodon, Parapocryptes, Oxuderces, Scartelaos, Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmodon and genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus Periophthalmus. Only seven genera of mudskippers (Periopthalmodon, Periophthalmus, Boleophthalmus, Scartelaos, Oxuderces, Parapocryptes and Pseudopocryptes) were assemble on the Selangor coast (Khaironizam, 2004). fit to Khaironizam (2004), Cantor (1849) had identify vanadium species of mudskippers while Koumans (195 3) had tell eight species in Malaysia. Apart from that, on that point were four species already describe by Macne (1968) and five species were described by Berry (1972). He also mentioned that Murdy (1989) stated 11 species of mudskippers in Malaysia while Takita (1999) had analyse 12 species of mudskippers (refer to concomitant A5).The mudskippers are euryhaline and semi-terrestrial species (Clayton, 1993). They have a rounded body and join pelvic fins. They also have a equate of protruding eyes and one to two rows of teething in the stop minute jaws. Besides this, they can survive for a long time above weewee and move on land. Commonly, the males are smaller than the females. The mudskippers usually feed on crabs, insects, and other small organisms (Clayton, 1993).There are several adaptations that allow the mudskippers to survive successfully come forth(p) of the pissing. Their bronchial chamber can satisfy up with water which allows them to walk on land for up to several hours. They spend much of their lives out of water and are able to undergo osmoregulation as well as oxygen uptake via their skin and gills (Clayton, 1993). They are big in muddy areas or mangroves. Oxudercine gobies often build mud towers around their burrows as refuge from predators (Clayton, 1993).The mudskippers have certain economic importance which provide substituted fishery for the period of torrential come down in some coastal countries. These fishes are commonly eaten in khina, Taiwan, India and some split of Malaysia. Nowadays, the mudskippers are also utilise as feed for aquarium fish (Clayton, 1993)1.4.1 World Distribution of MudskippersMudskippers can be fix around the tropical world as well as in the coastal regions of Asia, from In through with(p)sia to Borneo (see 3). A a couple of(prenominal)er species are also set in motion in Africa and Australia, whereas none are anchor in the new world (refer to Appendix A1).1.5 literature Reviews on Gobiid Parasites (refer to Appendix A7)There is too few research on parasitological stu haps of mudskipper in the Asiatic region. Most of the studies nowadays concentrate on the behavior and ecology of oxudercinae gobies (Khaironizam, 2004) taxonomic and cladistic of the oxudercine gobies (Murdy, 1989) and the newton excretion of mudskipper in water and on land, the growth of mudskipper, habitat of mudskipper and osmoregulation system among this species (Clayton, 1993).Mhaisen and Al-Maliki (1996) mentioned that Myxobolus pfeifferi (Sporozoa), Diplozoon sp. (Monogenea) and Neoechinorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala) were found in dark-blotched mudskippers, Periophthalmus waltoni, from the mudflats of the Khor Al-Zubair estuary. A new present showed the heterophyid (trematode) had served Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Scartelaos sp. as second intermediate host (Sohn et al., 2005).Clayton (1993) indicated that cestode, agamofilarial and acanthocephalid cysts have been described as parasite in Periophthalmus koelreuteri (Pearse, 1933), Periphthalmodon schlosseri and Boleophthalmus boddarti (Khoo, 1966). Besides, the larval ascarid nematodes infect Periophthalmodon schlosseri (Khoo, 1966). Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus were found to be septic by parasitic copepod, Gnathia sp. A larval cestode was also described by Pearse (1932) in Periophthalmus modestus. A study by Choudhury and Nandi (1973) did not assemble any parasitic infection on Boleophthalmus boddarti and Scartelaos histophorus. The intestinal flagellates were also famed by Pearse (1933) in Boleophthamus boddarti. The bacterial flora had been observed by Morii and Kasama (1989) to be in the intestine of Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Periophthalmus modestus. In West Africa and Singapore, a new species of acanthocephalan was sight in Periophthalmus barbarus and Periophthalmus schlosseri. 18 Gyrodactylus species were still from gobies of the genus Pomatoschistus and the host-parasite relationship was discus sed (Huyse et al., 2003). Geets et al. (1999) found that three gobies (Pomatoschistus minutus, P. lozanoi and P. pictus) were infected by Gyrodactylus arcuatus in the conglutination Sea and noted that Gyrodactylus longidactylus n. sp. is host specific (Geets et al., 1998). This study showed that monogenea was found in Pomatoschistus lozanoi from the North Sea (Geets et al., 1998)Longshaw et al. (2003) disc everywhereed that Gyrodactylus quadratidigitus n. sp. (Monogenea Gyrodactylidae) was found on the on the gills and body surface of Thorogobius ephippiatus (Lowe). Neogobius fluviatilis, Neogobius kessleri and Neogobius melanostomus from Slovakia were investigated by Ondrakov et al. (2003) and were found to be infected by a metazoan parasite.According to Garcia et al. (2004), Lepidogobius lepidus that has been fresh recorded as world a host to thirty three cestode pleroceroides of Phyllobothrium sp.Digenea (Aphalloides timmi, Apatemon gracilis, Podocotyle atomon, Cryptocotyle c oncavum, Cryptocotyle lingua) and nematode (Hysterothylacium sp.) are found to be present externally and internally in Pomatoschistus minutus, P. pictus, P.microps, Gobiusculus flavescens and Gobius niger (Zander, 2004). Pampoulie et al. (1999) noted that infection of Aphallodes clomicola has a bad impact on Pomatoschistus microps (Kryer, 1838).Gobies were described as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Zander (1998) noted that goby fishes serve the digenean, cestode, nematode and acanthoceplalan serve the goby fishes as their intermediate host. Pomatoschistus microps is the final host of Podocotyle atomon and Aphalloides timmi and these parasites had several(predicate) copiousness according to different seasons (Zander et al., 2002).Malek (2001) mentioned that Labratrema minimus and Cryptocotyle concavum have infected gobies (Pomatoschistus microps and Pomatoschistus minutes). According to Charlebois et al. (1997), there were 144 calm round gobies parasitiz ed by 7 species of parasites. They are Diplostomum sp.(digenean), Eustrongylides tubifex(nematode), Rhabdochona decaturensis, Spinitectus sp., Spiroxys sp.(nematode), Leptorhyncchoides thecatus (class Palaeacanthocephala) and glochidia (larvae of freshwater bivalves). Apart from that, another study showed that four of the 67 gobies had parasites and three of them were infected by Acanthocephalus dirus while the latter was infected by nematode.Parasite infection of the male gobies was higher than female (Appleby, 1996). Most of the parasites were found from the gills, oral cavity and pharynx of gobies. Marianne et al. (2004) mentioned that Ellipsomyxa gobii (Myxozoa) infected goby, Pomatoschistus microps, as fish host. According to Lynda et al. (2004), there were four species of freshwater parasites were found in round goby, Neogobius melanostomus. These parasites included trematodes and crustaceans.Schistocephalus solidus, Aphalloides timmi and Apatemon gracilis including a metaceca ria had been found in the goby fishes (Zander, 2001). These gobies have a low richness, prevelance, spurious intensity and sozzled abundance of parasite. The gobies are intermediate host of digenean which is Diplostomum sp., acanthocephala (Acanthocephalus dirus) and nematode, Eustrongylides sp. (Camp et al., 1999).1.6 Objectives of StudyThis is a general study on the parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along the Selangor coastal area. The study is divided into two parts with the first part being a general examine of parasites on mudskippers while the second part discuss the relative factors affecting distribution of parasites. It also had an card on the occurrences mudskippers along Selangor coast.Chapter 2Materials and Methods2.0 IntroductionThe present study focuses on the mudskippers found along the coastal area of Selangor. The fishes were caught from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib. A total of 127 specimens belonging to 7 species of muds kippers were stash away and they included Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus, Periophthalmus modestus, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and Scartelaos histophorus.Fish parts including the body surface, gills and gut were observed. The weight and the size of each specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. Apart from that, the diet of mudskippers also was documented according to their stomach contents. Next, the parasites found from different parts of fish specimens were identify and tabulated. ANOVA, Coefficient of sprinkling, the Chi consecutive Test and nation parameters were use to analyze data.2.1 Methodologyi) Fish arrangement siteThe fish specimens were caught by having the sampling at Jeram, Sementa, Carey Island and Morib (see 4). The field works were carried out during spring tide because the low tide was the last level while the high tide had the highest po int when compared to the normal time. The coarseness and pH of water were recorded. Fishes were caught by using different sizes of scoop net (medium or small). Otherwise, the fish can be caught using the twine net or by angling. Some crustaceans or small fishes were used as bait to draw fishes.The mudskippers were kept in water-filled aquarium to make received that they may survive longer. (If the fishes die during sampling, some ice cubes can be added into plastic bag to freeze the dead fish). Species identification was through using a taxonomic characteristic key.2.2 Fish Dis air divisionEach fish was killed by a pouf on their channelise or by severing the nerve cord. The weight and the size of specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. After that, the gill and alimentary system of the fish were taken out step by step for observations. The parts examined were dictated in a petri dish (with some drops of seawater in it. The seawater mayhap contained the protozoan s, copepods, mud, sea grasses and the others) gill removalThe operculum (a bony plate) was lifted and the gill parts were examined. Next, the operculum was cut across its base and the gill was being exposed. The gills were removed by cutting the upper and lower attachments of the arch. The gill apparatus were illuminated one by one into 8 pieces and the isolated gills were placed into a petri dish partially-filled with water. A pipet was used to suck and separate the parasite from the mucus, blood blot or tissues. A needle or a pair of fine forceps was usually used to summon the mucus or tissue so as to separate the parasites from mucus or tissue. Alimentary system or gut part removalThe alimentary system is a canal which starts from the esophagus and ends below the rectum. The body of the fish was cut lengthwise from the operculum parts till the tail part of the fish. After getting out the gill apparatus, it was lifted out together with the alimentary system by using a pair of forceps. The alimentary tract was cut into 4 parts (stomach, small intestine, big intestine and rectum). Again, a needle or forceps was used to scrape the mucus or tissue to separate the parasites from the mucus or tissue. The food items from the stomach content of the fish were recorded because this could peradventure gives us some informations on the life cycle of parasite (Mhaisen and Al-Maliki, 1996)2.3 Parasite orderScalpel or dissecting needles were used to scrape gently the gill filaments and gut dermis of the fish. The parasite were sucked out by using a small pipette (if they were too small) or a pair of forceps (if they were bigger) and placed into a cavity plosive filled with some drops of seawater.Then, the parasite was examined under a dissecting microscope. The parasite was preserved using different methods according to the species of parasites.i) Fixation of the monogenean or any unknown species of parasiteA coverslip was placed over the parasite subsequently it w as placed at the centre part of a slide. The slide-fixed parasite would be examined with a dissecting microscope to make sure the slide contained the specimen.After leaving the slide to be dry for a few minutes, a give-up the ghost nail varnish was used to fix the four edges of the coverslip on the slide to proscribe any movement of the coverslip. Ammonium picrate glycerin was added to the sides of the coverslip to allow it to seep under the coverslip, to fix and to clear the specimens.ii) economy methods for different types of parasiteThere were different parasite preservation methods used depending on the species and sum of the collected parasites (see instrument panel 1) accede 1 Preparation methods for different types of parasiteParasitePreparation methodsNematode fervid 70% intoxicant was poured over the worms and later the specimens were transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for memory boardTrematode Digenea change 10% formol was poured over the worms and the specimens were kept overnight in the fixative. They were transferred into fresh 70% alcohol for retentivenessCestode agile 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage2.4 Data outlineCoefficient of Dispersion (C.D)The coefficient of dispersion (C.D) was metric to see how the population is dispersed, such as random, uniformed or clumped. It is reckon by dividing the variance over the mean and the relative relationship between mean and variance would establish the distribution pattern of the parasites in a population. If the C.D is close to or equals to one, the population is at random dispersed. If the C.D is more than one, the population is clumped or over-dispersed. If the C.D is less than one, it shows that the population is uniformly dispersed or under-dispersed. The ratio of the mean to the variance is called the Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) and the calculated verbalism is as belowThe Analysis of fluctuation (ANOVA)The Analysis of Va riance (ANOVA) (refer to Appendix A4) was used to test for monumental differences among the variances. In this study, ANOVA was used to test for significant differences among the variances of parasites in the mudskippers sampled around the Selangor coastal area. In addition, the relative test had exhibited the interaction among the different factors affecting the occurrences and quantity of parasites. A test was calculated to show the correlation between the interaction of the different independent variables and the quantity of parasites on the gills and gut of the mudskipper. The significant result for fish survival in relation to the quantity of different parasite species under different variables was also documented.Chi Square TestThe Chi Square Test was done to test whether a sample from a population follows a specified distribution or not. The Chi Square mensurate was calculated as followWhere as= The observed number of cases which be written off as i row number of j column n umber= The expected number of cases which under the H0 to be characterized with i row number of j column number= It is run over all cellsr = The number of rows in Chi-square give ink = The number of columns in Chi-square tableThe calculated value was well-tried at a significance level of 95%. The value was yielded by the formula which was approximated by distribution with (r-1) (c-1). If the calculated value exceeded the tabulated one, the null hypothesis would be rejected at p = 0.05.Population tiltThe basic parasitological parameters which are prevalence, abundance and intensity were calculated for each parasite. According to cyclooxygenase (1982), prevalence is defined by the percentage of host. Formula calculation of each basic parasitological parameter is as belowpreponderance is to look at how common a host (mudskipper) is infected in a population.Prevalence = summate of infected host X 100%Number of host examinedIntensity is the quantity of parasite found in the host sa mples (mudskippers).Intensity = resume number of parasitesTotal number of infected host copiousness is the total number of parasites found in all the examined hosts.Abundance = IntensityTotal number of host examinedChapter 3Results and Discussions3.0 IntroductionThis study focuses on parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along Selangor coast. The fishes were caught (see Chapter 2) from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib (refer to 4). There were totally 127 mudskippers caught for study. The collected fish were determine by using taxonomic keys and cladistic analysis of family Gobiidae. 127 mudskippers consist of 7 species from 5 genera were collected. They were 27 Boleophthalmus boddarti, 36 Periophthalmus chrysospilos, 54 Periophthalmus novemradiatus, 1 Periophthalmus modestus, 1 Periophthalmodon schlosseri, 7 Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and 1 Scartelaos histophorus (refer Appendix A3).In this study, parasites of the gills , the gut and the body surface of fish were investigated (see Chapter 2). There was found nothing from the body surface of fish. Five groups of parasites found from the whole study. They were monogenean, digenean, nematode, cestode and some unknown parasite cysts. Apart from that, the environmental factors (pH and common salt of water) also were discussed (see control board 2 Appendix A2).3.1 Parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers)mesa 2 showed the summarized parasite data of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) (refer to Appendix A2). Parasites species differ among oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) based on studied sites.Five groups of parasites were detected from this present study (see put back 3 5-11). appellation is not slowly to be done based on general main beliefs about parasite. There are varies in morphology and biological characters among parasites (see Satyu Yamaguti, 1953). The collected parasite consists of digeneans (see class 1.2 5-8), monogenean (see section 1.2 9), nematode (see section 1.2), cestode (see section 1.2 10), and unnamed parasite cysts (see 11).Digeneans inhabit the gills and the gut of mudskippers (see Table 3). In this study, three types of digeneans were found in the gut of mudskippers. However, two of these three types of digeneans were also found in the gills. These digeneans are probably regurgitated from the gut as they have the same morphology with the guts digeneans.Gyrodactylus sp. (Monogenea, Gyrodactylidae) was described from the gills of mudskippers (see 8). The gills are the preferred part for monogenean. Table 3 showed that cestode and nematode inhabit the gut of fish specimens. Most of them found as encysted form in the mudskippers.In this study, the unidentified parasites cysts were found in the gills and gut of the mudskippers (see Table 3 11). The unidentified parasites found in the gut of the mudskippers are probably cysts of cestode or nematode. However, some unknown parasites cysts which were found in th e gills are considered as myxosporid.Table 2 ExcelTable 3 Parasite record of the examined fishParasite speciesNumber of SpeciesMicrohabitati) Digenea (see 5-8)3Gut and gillii) Monogenea (see 9)1Gilliii) Cestode (see 10)1Gutiv) Nematode1 Gutv)Unidentified parasite cysts3.2 Parasites and their hostsTable 4 showed the presences of parasites on oxudercine gobies (mudskippers). Eight monogeneans were found limited to Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Monogenean seems to be host specific and it prefers to inhabit the gills of Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus.Next, digeneans occurred in Periophthalmus chrysospilos and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see table 4). There were 136 digeneans found in Periophthalmus chrysospilos while ten digeneans were detected from Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). It is perchance because digeneans are able to adapt well in Periophthalmus chrysospilos.Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus and Periophthalmodon schloss eri were infected by cestodes (see Table 4). Most (twenty eight cestodes) were found in Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). According to Table 5, there were twenty five nematodes found from Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Nematodes also occurred in Periophthalmodon schlosseri, mostly in the encysted form in the gut of mudskippers.There were 402 unidentified parasite cysts (see section 3.1) observed in Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus modestus and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Most were found in Boleophthalmus boddarti. .Table 4 Parasites from Different Mudskippers SpeciesParasite SpeciesBoleophthalmus boddartiPeriophthalmus modestusPeriophthalmusnovemradiatusHost SpeciesPeriophthalmus chrysospilosPeriophthalmodon schlosseriPseudapocryptesLanceolatusScartelaos hisphorousMonogenea+Digenea++Cestode++Nematode+++Unknown parasite cysts+++ = Parasite detected = Parasite not detectedTable 5 The Quantity of Compound Parasite Community usher in the Differ ent Mudskipper SpeciesHost SpeciesParasites DigeneaMonogeneaNematodeCestodeUnidentified cystsBoleophthalmus boddarti0000395Periophthalmus chrysospilos1360010Periophthalmus novemradiatus1007286Periophthalmus modestus00001Pseudopocryptes lanceolatus08000Periophthalmodon schlosseri002540Scartelaos histophorus000003.3 Parasite and their habitatThe salinity and pH of the water from the specimen collection areas were recorded (see table 2). Table 6 showed that site Sementa 2 with salinity drill from 23 to 25 and pH of water between 7.35 and 7.58 had the highest parasitic infection rate. There were 29 out of 40 samples found to have parasitic infection. Morib recorded the lowest parasitic infection rate (6%), only one out of 18 mudskippers was infected with parasite cysts. The parasitic infection rate of the mudskippers may mayhap vary with a distinct study area. The abundance of parasite was probably affected by the salinity of the macro-habitat (Zander Reimer, 2002).Monogenean prefers to inhabit in water with pH 7.44 (see Table 7 13). Digeneans can be found in water with pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). Most digeneans were found in water with pH 7.35.Cestode and nematode occurred independently in the inner body of the host. Cestodes were found from the site Carey Island 2, site Sementa 2 and Morib (see Table 2). Table 7 showed that twenty-eight cestodes were found from site Carey Island 2 (see Table 2) with water pH measured as 5.71. Nematodes could be found in water with a wide range of pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). With reference to Table 7, the unidentified parasite cysts were found more abundantly in water pH 7.35 (Table 7 14). The abundance of parasites in a distinct area differs with pH of water based on their own optimum pH and tolerance to the environment.Table 6 The Parasitic Infection of Mudskipper in Different Locations along Selangor margeLocationsTotal of SamplespH water()SalinityParasitic infectionsInfection RateJeram5N.AN.A240%Car ey Island 157.4411360%Carey Island 2365.71171439%Carey Island 338.1711267%Sementa1206.8128525%Sementa2407.35-7.5823-252973%Morib187.2125-3016%2Table 7 Parasites in different pH range.pH of waterParasite5.716.817.217.357.447.588.17Digenea1001135001CestodeTypes of ParasitesTypes of ParasitesChapter 1General Introduction1.0 Introduction1.1 Fish ParasitesParasitism is an obligatory association between two distinct species, in which one species parasite is dependent on its host for nutrients and shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The parasites can be divided into two groups which are ectoparasites and endoparasites. Ectoparasites are found on the external surfaces of the host such as skin, fins and gills, while endoparasites usually hide within the internal tissues or organs in the host (Cheng, 1986).Fishes acts as hosts to a wide variety of parasites such as the protozoans, platyhelminthes, acanthocephalan, nematodes and crustaceans (Lim, 1987). Parasites are typically smaller than their ho st. A distinct host usually found to be infected by a group of parasites (Zander, 1998).The chemical and physical factors which are either in micro-environment or macro-environment play an important role to determine the distribution and density of parasites (Cheng, 1986). Parasites show a preference among different age groups (Zander et al., 1993), sex of host (Lim, 1987) or according to host density and behaviour (Cheng, 1986).Remarkably, parasites have a distinguished ability to deal with the normal physiological and structural changes of the host, for example, the peristaltic movement and intestinal mucosa (Cheng, 1986) for survival, and starting their parasitism phase.Apart from that, the presence of parasites commonly irritates the host, causing immunological change (Lim, 1979) and may eventually cause death (Zander, 1998). Parasites penetrate the hosts tissue, causing chronic body system problems to the host. Moreover, the irritation site will initiate secondary infection by micro-organisms to the host (Cheng, 1986).1.2 Specific parasiteGobies play a role as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Varieties of protozoan, helminthes, mollusks, crustaceans have been described as parasites of fish (Lim, 1987). They are able to reproduce either sexually or asexually. Some species of parasites have specific attachment to enable them to hold onto the host for food, transport (Cheng, 1986) or shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961).The phylum Platyhelminthes consists of a large group of free-living invertebrates but most live as parasitic species on or in other organisms. There are 3 main classes under this phylum, namely, class Monogenea, class Trematode, and class Cestoda (Solomon et al., 2002).Monogeneans are typical gillworms (Bunkley-Williams E. H. Williams, 1994). Some species attach themselves on the body surface or invade into the inner organ of aquatic species (Reed, Francis-Floyd Klinger, 1996). Monogeneans have a series of hooks that enable t hem to attach on the host (Reed et al., 1996). They usually inhabit the gill and feed on skin mucosa (Lim, 1987).Reed et al. (1996) mentioned that a monogenean, Dactylogyrus sp., usually attaches itself to the gills of freshwater fish. It reproduces by laying eggs, while Gyrodactylus is typically found on the skin and fins of fish. This parasite produces live young or can be described as viviparous during its whole life.Digenea was formerly described as digenetic trematodes and this species of flukes usually has at least two hosts in their life cycle (Smyth, 1962). The parasite usually has a terminal opening mouth with a sucker which is subterminal or ventral. It may or may not have an oral sucker (Yamagutti, 1958). They are particularly found as endoparasites in the digestive tract, but are sometimes found throughout the inner organ systems of vertebrates (Yamagutti, 1958). The adult digeneans are commonly hermaphroditic but reproduction still requires two worms. Digeneans have a c omplex life cycle with two to three intermediate hosts (Cheng, 1986).Cestode is a parasitic flatworm or commonly known as tapeworm (Solomon, et al., 2002). An adult worm consists of a scolex which maybe armed with suckers and sometimes hooks for attachment on host (Solomon et al., 2002) and a strobila which is a linear series that be formed by one or more segments (also described as proglottides) which contain reproductive structures (Yamagutti, 1959). Most of the cestodes are monoecious and each proglottid has a male reproductive system and a female reproductive system. Both self and cross-fertilization will take place in cestode (Smyth, 1962).Nematode is commonly called as round worm (Solomon et al., 2002) that can infect a vertebrates eye, mouth, alimentary system, body cavity and the other parts (Smyth, 1962). This species can also be found as a parasite of many species of fishes. Some species parasitize plants and are described as an important agricultural pest (Campbell, 2002) . It is smooth and consists of a cylindrical body, a pointed tail and cuticle layer surrounding its body (Solomon et al., 2002). Nematodes are typically dioecious. The female is generally larger than the male (Cheng, 1986). Apart from that, nematode life cycles differ depending on the species of the nematode (Smyth, 1962).1.3 The Family of GobiidaeThe members which form the family Gobiidae are known as gobies. It is the largest family of marine fishes and consists of two hundred genera (retrieved from Wikipedia). The members of the Family Gobiidae have their own special characteristics. They have a cylindrical body and the pelvic fins usually form an adhesive disc (Maurice Anthony, 1993).This species usually inhabits the shore in shallow bays and estuaries and also freshwater swamps and lakes (retrieved from Wikipedia). Some species are restricted to coral reefs, rocky coast, sandy, mangrove swamp or muddy beaches (Murdy, 1989).1.4 Oxudercine Gobies (Mudskippers)The mudskippers are known as ikan belacak, ikan tembakul or ikan belukor in Malay. The members of the goby family classified as mudskipper species based on body traits and behaviours (Murdy, 1989).Oxudercine gobies are described as the members of mudskippers (Murdy, 1989). There are thirty four species from ten genera found throughout the world (Murdy, 1989). They are Apocryptes, Zappa, Pseudapocryptes, Apocryptodon, Parapocryptes, Oxuderces, Scartelaos, Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmodon and Periophthalmus. Only seven genera of mudskippers (Periopthalmodon, Periophthalmus, Boleophthalmus, Scartelaos, Oxuderces, Parapocryptes and Pseudopocryptes) were found along the Selangor coast (Khaironizam, 2004).According to Khaironizam (2004), Cantor (1849) had identified five species of mudskippers while Koumans (1953) had noted eight species in Malaysia. Apart from that, there were four species already reported by Macne (1968) and five species were described by Berry (1972). He also mentioned that Murdy (1989) stated 11 species of mudskippers in Malaysia while Takita (1999) had studied 12 species of mudskippers (refer to Appendix A5).The mudskippers are euryhaline and semi-terrestrial species (Clayton, 1993). They have a rounded body and united pelvic fins. They also have a pair of protruding eyes and one to two rows of teeth in the upper jaws. Besides this, they can survive for a long time above water and move on land. Commonly, the males are smaller than the females. The mudskippers usually feed on crabs, insects, and other small organisms (Clayton, 1993).There are several adaptations that allow the mudskippers to survive successfully out of the water. Their bronchial chamber can fill up with water which allows them to walk on land for up to several hours. They spend much of their lives out of water and are able to undergo osmoregulation as well as oxygen uptake via their skin and gills (Clayton, 1993). They are abundant in muddy areas or mangroves. Oxudercine gobies often build mud tow ers around their burrows as refuge from predators (Clayton, 1993).The mudskippers have certain economic importance which provide substituted fishery for the period of torrential rain in some coastal countries. These fishes are commonly eaten in China, Taiwan, India and some parts of Malaysia. Nowadays, the mudskippers are also used as feed for aquarium fish (Clayton, 1993)1.4.1 World Distribution of MudskippersMudskippers can be found around the tropical world as well as in the coastal regions of Asia, from Indonesia to Borneo (see 3). A few species are also found in Africa and Australia, whereas none are found in the new world (refer to Appendix A1).1.5 Literature Reviews on Gobiid Parasites (refer to Appendix A7)There is too few research on parasitological studies of mudskipper in the Asian region. Most of the studies nowadays concentrate on the behavior and ecology of oxudercinae gobies (Khaironizam, 2004) taxonomic and cladistic of the oxudercine gobies (Murdy, 1989) and the nit rogen excretion of mudskipper in water and on land, the growth of mudskipper, habitat of mudskipper and osmoregulation system among this species (Clayton, 1993).Mhaisen and Al-Maliki (1996) mentioned that Myxobolus pfeifferi (Sporozoa), Diplozoon sp. (Monogenea) and Neoechinorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala) were found in dark-blotched mudskippers, Periophthalmus waltoni, from the mudflats of the Khor Al-Zubair estuary. A new record showed the heterophyid (trematode) had served Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Scartelaos sp. as second intermediate host (Sohn et al., 2005).Clayton (1993) indicated that cestode, agamofilarial and acanthocephalid cysts have been described as parasite in Periophthalmus koelreuteri (Pearse, 1933), Periphthalmodon schlosseri and Boleophthalmus boddarti (Khoo, 1966). Besides, the larval ascarid nematodes infected Periophthalmodon schlosseri (Khoo, 1966). Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus were found to be infected by parasitic copepod, Gnathia sp. A larval cestode w as also described by Pearse (1932) in Periophthalmus modestus. A study by Choudhury and Nandi (1973) did not establish any parasitic infection on Boleophthalmus boddarti and Scartelaos histophorus. The intestinal flagellates were also noted by Pearse (1933) in Boleophthamus boddarti. The bacterial flora had been observed by Morii and Kasama (1989) to be in the intestine of Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Periophthalmus modestus. In West Africa and Singapore, a new species of acanthocephalan was detected in Periophthalmus barbarus and Periophthalmus schlosseri.Eighteen Gyrodactylus species were collected from gobies of the genus Pomatoschistus and the host-parasite relationship was discussed (Huyse et al., 2003). Geets et al. (1999) found that three gobies (Pomatoschistus minutus, P. lozanoi and P. pictus) were infected by Gyrodactylus arcuatus in the North Sea and noted that Gyrodactylus longidactylus n. sp. is host specific (Geets et al., 1998). This study showed that monogenea w as found in Pomatoschistus lozanoi from the North Sea (Geets et al., 1998)Longshaw et al. (2003) discovered that Gyrodactylus quadratidigitus n. sp. (Monogenea Gyrodactylidae) was found on the on the gills and body surface of Thorogobius ephippiatus (Lowe). Neogobius fluviatilis, Neogobius kessleri and Neogobius melanostomus from Slovakia were investigated by Ondrakov et al. (2003) and were found to be infected by a metazoan parasite.According to Garcia et al. (2004), Lepidogobius lepidus that has been newly recorded as being a host to thirty three cestode pleroceroides of Phyllobothrium sp.Digenea (Aphalloides timmi, Apatemon gracilis, Podocotyle atomon, Cryptocotyle concavum, Cryptocotyle lingua) and nematode (Hysterothylacium sp.) are found to be present externally and internally in Pomatoschistus minutus, P. pictus, P.microps, Gobiusculus flavescens and Gobius niger (Zander, 2004). Pampoulie et al. (1999) noted that infection of Aphallodes clomicola has a bad impact on Pomatosch istus microps (Kryer, 1838).Gobies were described as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Zander (1998) noted that goby fishes serve the digenean, cestode, nematode and acanthoceplalan serve the goby fishes as their intermediate host. Pomatoschistus microps is the final host of Podocotyle atomon and Aphalloides timmi and these parasites had different abundance according to different seasons (Zander et al., 2002).Malek (2001) mentioned that Labratrema minimus and Cryptocotyle concavum have infected gobies (Pomatoschistus microps and Pomatoschistus minutes). According to Charlebois et al. (1997), there were 144 collected round gobies parasitized by 7 species of parasites. They are Diplostomum sp.(digenean), Eustrongylides tubifex(nematode), Rhabdochona decaturensis, Spinitectus sp., Spiroxys sp.(nematode), Leptorhyncchoides thecatus (class Palaeacanthocephala) and glochidia (larvae of freshwater bivalves). Apart from that, another study showed that four of the 67 go bies had parasites and three of them were infected by Acanthocephalus dirus while the latter was infected by nematode.Parasite infection of the male gobies was higher than female (Appleby, 1996). Most of the parasites were found from the gills, oral cavity and pharynx of gobies. Marianne et al. (2004) mentioned that Ellipsomyxa gobii (Myxozoa) infected goby, Pomatoschistus microps, as fish host. According to Lynda et al. (2004), there were four species of freshwater parasites were found in round goby, Neogobius melanostomus. These parasites included trematodes and crustaceans.Schistocephalus solidus, Aphalloides timmi and Apatemon gracilis including a metacecaria had been found in the goby fishes (Zander, 2001). These gobies have a low richness, prevelance, mean intensity and mean abundance of parasite. The gobies are intermediate host of digenean which is Diplostomum sp., acanthocephala (Acanthocephalus dirus) and nematode, Eustrongylides sp. (Camp et al., 1999).1.6 Objectives of S tudyThis is a general study on the parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along the Selangor coastal area. The study is divided into two parts with the first part being a general survey of parasites on mudskippers while the second part discuss the relative factors affecting distribution of parasites. It also had an observation on the occurrences mudskippers along Selangor coast.Chapter 2Materials and Methods2.0 IntroductionThe present study focuses on the mudskippers found along the coastal area of Selangor. The fishes were caught from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib. A total of 127 specimens belonging to 7 species of mudskippers were collected and they included Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus, Periophthalmus modestus, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and Scartelaos histophorus.Fish parts including the body surface, gills and gut were observed. The weight and the size of each specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. Apart from that, the diet of mudskippers also was documented according to their stomach contents. Next, the parasites found from different parts of fish specimens were identified and tabulated. ANOVA, Coefficient of Dispersion, the Chi Square Test and population parameters were used to analyze data.2.1 Methodologyi) Fish collection siteThe fish specimens were caught by having the sampling at Jeram, Sementa, Carey Island and Morib (see 4). The field works were carried out during spring tide because the low tide was the lowest level while the high tide had the highest point when compared to the normal time. The salinity and pH of water were recorded. Fishes were caught by using different sizes of scoop net (medium or small). Otherwise, the fish can be caught using the cast net or by angling. Some crustaceans or small fishes were used as bait to attract fishes.The mudskippers were kept in water-filled aq uarium to make sure that they may survive longer. (If the fishes die during sampling, some ice cubes can be added into plastic bag to freeze the dead fish). Species identification was done using a taxonomic characteristic key.2.2 Fish DissectionEach fish was killed by a blow on their head or by severing the nerve cord. The weight and the size of specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. After that, the gill and alimentary system of the fish were taken out step by step for observations. The parts examined were placed in a petri dish (with some drops of seawater in it. The seawater possibly contained the protozoans, copepods, mud, sea grasses and the others) Gill removalThe operculum (a bony plate) was lifted and the gill parts were examined. Next, the operculum was cut across its base and the gill was being exposed. The gills were removed by cutting the upper and lower attachments of the arch. The gill apparatus were separate one by one into 8 pieces and the isolated gi lls were placed into a petri dish partially-filled with water. A pipette was used to suck and separate the parasite from the mucus, blood blot or tissues. A needle or a pair of fine forceps was usually used to scrape the mucus or tissue so as to separate the parasites from mucus or tissue. Alimentary system or gut part removalThe alimentary system is a canal which starts from the esophagus and ends below the rectum. The body of the fish was cut longitudinally from the operculum parts till the tail part of the fish. After getting out the gill apparatus, it was lifted out together with the alimentary system by using a pair of forceps. The alimentary tract was cut into 4 parts (stomach, small intestine, big intestine and rectum). Again, a needle or forceps was used to scrape the mucus or tissue to separate the parasites from the mucus or tissue. The food items from the stomach content of the fish were recorded because this could possibly gives us some informations on the life cycle of parasite (Mhaisen and Al-Maliki, 1996)2.3 Parasite collectionScalpel or dissecting needles were used to scrape gently the gill filaments and gut dermis of the fish. The parasite were sucked out by using a small pipette (if they were too small) or a pair of forceps (if they were bigger) and placed into a cavity block filled with some drops of seawater.Then, the parasite was examined under a dissecting microscope. The parasite was preserved using different methods according to the species of parasites.i) Fixation of the monogenean or any unknown species of parasiteA coverslip was placed over the parasite after it was placed at the centre part of a slide. The slide-fixed parasite would be examined with a dissecting microscope to make sure the slide contained the specimen.After leaving the slide to be dry for a few minutes, a clear nail varnish was used to fix the four edges of the coverslip on the slide to prevent any movement of the coverslip. Ammonium picrate glycerin was added to th e sides of the coverslip to allow it to seep under the coverslip, to fix and to clear the specimens.ii) Preservation methods for different types of parasiteThere were different parasite preservation methods used depending on the species and quantity of the collected parasites (see Table 1)Table 1 Preparation methods for different types of parasiteParasitePreparation methodsNematodeWarm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later the specimens were transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storageTrematode DigeneaWarm 10% formalin was poured over the worms and the specimens were kept overnight in the fixative. They were transferred into fresh 70% alcohol for storageCestodeWarm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage2.4 Data analysisCoefficient of Dispersion (C.D)The coefficient of dispersion (C.D) was calculated to see how the population is dispersed, such as random, uniformed or clumped. It is calculated by dividing the variance o ver the mean and the relative relationship between mean and variance would establish the distribution pattern of the parasites in a population. If the C.D is close to or equals to one, the population is randomly dispersed. If the C.D is more than one, the population is clumped or over-dispersed. If the C.D is less than one, it shows that the population is uniformly dispersed or under-dispersed. The ratio of the mean to the variance is called the Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) and the calculated formula is as belowThe Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (refer to Appendix A4) was used to test for significant differences among the variances. In this study, ANOVA was used to test for significant differences among the variances of parasites in the mudskippers sampled around the Selangor coastal area. In addition, the relative test had exhibited the interaction among the different factors affecting the occurrences and quantity of parasites. A test was calculated to show the correlation between the interaction of the different independent variables and the quantity of parasites on the gills and gut of the mudskipper. The significant result for fish survival in relation to the quantity of different parasite species under different variables was also documented.Chi Square TestThe Chi Square Test was done to test whether a sample from a population follows a specified distribution or not. The Chi Square value was calculated as followWhere as= The observed number of cases which be written off as i row number of j column number= The expected number of cases which under the H0 to be characterized with i row number of j column number= It is run over all cellsr = The number of rows in Chi-square tablek = The number of columns in Chi-square tableThe calculated value was tested at a significance level of 95%. The value was yielded by the formula which was approximated by distribution with (r-1) (c-1). If the calculated value exceeded the tabulated one , the null hypothesis would be rejected at p = 0.05.Population ParameterThe basic parasitological parameters which are prevalence, abundance and intensity were calculated for each parasite. According to Cox (1982), prevalence is defined by the percentage of host. Formula calculation of each basic parasitological parameter is as belowPrevalence is to look at how common a host (mudskipper) is infected in a population.Prevalence = Number of infected host X 100%Number of host examinedIntensity is the quantity of parasite found in the host samples (mudskippers).Intensity = Total number of parasitesTotal number of infected hostAbundance is the total number of parasites found in all the examined hosts.Abundance = IntensityTotal number of host examinedChapter 3Results and Discussions3.0 IntroductionThis study focuses on parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along Selangor coast. The fishes were caught (see Chapter 2) from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib (re fer to 4). There were totally 127 mudskippers caught for study. The collected fish were identified by using taxonomic keys and cladistic analysis of family Gobiidae. 127 mudskippers consist of 7 species from 5 genera were collected. They were 27 Boleophthalmus boddarti, 36 Periophthalmus chrysospilos, 54 Periophthalmus novemradiatus, 1 Periophthalmus modestus, 1 Periophthalmodon schlosseri, 7 Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and 1 Scartelaos histophorus (refer Appendix A3).In this study, parasites of the gills, the gut and the body surface of fish were investigated (see Chapter 2). There was found nothing from the body surface of fish. Five groups of parasites found from the whole study. They were monogenean, digenean, nematode, cestode and some unknown parasite cysts. Apart from that, the environmental factors (pH and salinity of water) also were discussed (see Table 2 Appendix A2).3.1 Parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers)Table 2 showed the summarized parasite data of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) (refer to Appendix A2). Parasites species differ among oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) based on studied sites.Five groups of parasites were detected from this present study (see Table 3 5-11). Identification is not easily to be done based on general main beliefs about parasite. There are varies in morphology and biological characters among parasites (see Satyu Yamaguti, 1953). The collected parasite consists of digeneans (see section 1.2 5-8), monogenean (see section 1.2 9), nematode (see section 1.2), cestode (see section 1.2 10), and unidentified parasite cysts (see 11).Digeneans inhabit the gills and the gut of mudskippers (see Table 3). In this study, three types of digeneans were found in the gut of mudskippers. However, two of these three types of digeneans were also found in the gills. These digeneans are probably regurgitated from the gut as they have the same morphology with the guts digeneans.Gyrodactylus sp. (Monogenea, Gyr odactylidae) was described from the gills of mudskippers (see 8). The gills are the preferred part for monogenean. Table 3 showed that cestode and nematode inhabit the gut of fish specimens. Most of them found as encysted form in the mudskippers.In this study, the unidentified parasites cysts were found in the gills and gut of the mudskippers (see Table 3 11). The unidentified parasites found in the gut of the mudskippers are probably cysts of cestode or nematode. However, some unknown parasites cysts which were found in the gills are considered as myxosporid.Table 2 ExcelTable 3 Parasite record of the examined fishParasite speciesNumber of SpeciesMicrohabitati) Digenea (see 5-8)3Gut and gillii) Monogenea (see 9)1Gilliii) Cestode (see 10)1Gutiv) Nematode1 Gutv)Unidentified parasite cysts3.2 Parasites and their hostsTable 4 showed the presences of parasites on oxudercine gobies (mudskippers). Eight monogeneans were found limited to Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Monogenean seems to be host specific and it prefers to inhabit the gills of Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus.Next, digeneans occurred in Periophthalmus chrysospilos and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see table 4). There were 136 digeneans found in Periophthalmus chrysospilos while ten digeneans were detected from Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). It is possibly because digeneans are able to adapt well in Periophthalmus chrysospilos.Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus and Periophthalmodon schlosseri were infected by cestodes (see Table 4). Most (twenty eight cestodes) were found in Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). According to Table 5, there were twenty five nematodes found from Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Nematodes also occurred in Periophthalmodon schlosseri, mostly in the encysted form in the gut of mudskippers.There were 402 unidentified parasite cysts (see section 3.1) observed in Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus modestus and Periop hthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Most were found in Boleophthalmus boddarti. .Table 4 Parasites from Different Mudskippers SpeciesParasite SpeciesBoleophthalmus boddartiPeriophthalmus modestusPeriophthalmusnovemradiatusHost SpeciesPeriophthalmus chrysospilosPeriophthalmodon schlosseriPseudapocryptesLanceolatusScartelaos hisphorousMonogenea+Digenea++Cestode++Nematode+++Unknown parasite cysts+++ = Parasite detected = Parasite not detectedTable 5 The Quantity of Compound Parasite Community Present in the Different Mudskipper SpeciesHost SpeciesParasites DigeneaMonogeneaNematodeCestodeUnidentified cystsBoleophthalmus boddarti0000395Periophthalmus chrysospilos1360010Periophthalmus novemradiatus1007286Periophthalmus modestus00001Pseudopocryptes lanceolatus08000Periophthalmodon schlosseri002540Scartelaos histophorus000003.3 Parasite and their habitatThe salinity and pH of the water from the specimen collection areas were recorded (see table 2). Table 6 showed that site Semen ta 2 with salinity reading from 23 to 25 and pH of water between 7.35 and 7.58 had the highest parasitic infection rate. There were 29 out of 40 samples found to have parasitic infection. Morib recorded the lowest parasitic infection rate (6%), only one out of 18 mudskippers was infected with parasite cysts. The parasitic infection rate of the mudskippers may perhaps vary with a distinct study area. The abundance of parasite was probably affected by the salinity of the macro-habitat (Zander Reimer, 2002).Monogenean prefers to inhabit in water with pH 7.44 (see Table 7 13). Digeneans can be found in water with pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). Most digeneans were found in water with pH 7.35.Cestode and nematode occurred individually in the inner body of the host. Cestodes were found from the site Carey Island 2, site Sementa 2 and Morib (see Table 2). Table 7 showed that twenty-eight cestodes were found from site Carey Island 2 (see Table 2) with water pH measured as 5.71. Nem atodes could be found in water with a wide range of pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). With reference to Table 7, the unidentified parasite cysts were found more abundantly in water pH 7.35 (Table 7 14). The abundance of parasites in a distinct area differs with pH of water based on their own optimum pH and tolerance to the environment.Table 6 The Parasitic Infection of Mudskipper in Different Locations along Selangor CoastLocationsTotal of SamplespH water()SalinityParasitic infectionsInfection RateJeram5N.AN.A240%Carey Island 157.4411360%Carey Island 2365.71171439%Carey Island 338.1711267%Sementa1206.8128525%Sementa2407.35-7.5823-252973%Morib187.2125-3016%2Table 7 Parasites in different pH range.pH of waterParasite5.716.817.217.357.447.588.17Digenea1001135001Cestode